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Japanese Verbs One of the hardest aspects of mastering any language is mastering the words that change form by inflection. In Japanese, that means verbs and adjectives. Not having a solid handle on all of the most common inflections will seriously hobble your ability to speak, read and understand spoken Japanese. Realizing this, I set out to master basic verb forms quickly. My approach is to master the mechanics of producing any of the forms along with a conscious understanding of the basic meanings of the inflections. This doesn't mean that I know the intricacies of how to use all the inflections, or exact shades of their meaning, but it means that I can recognize them when I see them and produce them at will. Actual usage will be picked up only by experience, but if you don't know it in the first place, you won't know when you're hearing or reading it. The process of learning the mechanics of Japanese verb conjugation also builds up the important skill of reversing an inflected form to the the root form that you would need to look it up in a dictionary. DISCLAIMER: I am not expert. I am a student in the process of learning Japanese. These are my notes. They are incomplete and have not been checked over by anyone. I don't think they're materially incorrect, but I make no guarantees. Some Background on Japanese Verbs Japanese verbs are a breed apart from their counterparts in Western languages. Japanese has no plural form, and correspondingly, verbs do not inflect for number. Japanese verbs also do not inflect for person. Thus the same form is used to mean, for example, "I go", "you go", "she goes", "we go", or "they go". As far as inflection cases, this is a vast simplification compared to, say, English, French, or German. Furthermore, unlike Western languages, there are only a very small handful of irregular verbs. Of the verbs that are irregular, most are pretty regular in their irregularity. Oftentimes you hear that Japanese only has two irregular verbs. This is a bit of an oversimplification, but the two in question, "suru" (to do) and "kuru"(to come), are the only two which are so highly irregular that it will take a special effort to memorize them. Although there is relative simplicity of inflection, there are some additional complexities of Japanese verbs not found in European languages. Japanese society is keenly aware of relative social position, and of social relationships between individuals and particular groups. The language, most particularly in the inflection of verbs, reflects and expresses this. Most verb forms have both a plain form and a polite form. The plain form is used among familiars, i.e. self, family, close friends, etc. The polite form is used with superiors and people with whom the speaker is not on intimate terms. To a native speaker the plain form is the one that likely appears in internal thought processes. The polite (often called "normal polite" or "masu form") is a modification of the plain form made at the time of speaking. Most methods of teaching Japanese to Westerners emphasize the polite form exclusively at first. My personal (non-expert) opinion is that both forms should be learned up front, so that the plain form can be internalized, but that the polite form should be highly exercised in speaking practice. Only the last verb in a sentence shows the politeness level of the whole sentence, so there are cases when one is being polite where plain forms are still required. The most common example is the "no desu" tag that is used at the end of a polite sentence to make the sentence explanatory. Since "desu" is already polite, the main verb of the sentence must be in plain form. A normal polite level of speech can be used (especially by foreigners) in almost any situation without causing offense. There is a whole aspect of the Japanese language of which the plain/polite distinction only scratches the surface. To master these aspects of polite language is a vast endeavor, but fortunately it is mostly unimportant for normal daily life (and again, foreigners are usally granted some special dispensation for not knowing how and when to use it). This is not to say that they should not try. One aspect to be aware of is the "attitude" of verbs (my terminology). Most of the forms presented will be neutral with respect to attitude, but verbs can be inflected so as to be humble or honorific, and from there, inflected further into the basic inflection cases (past, conditional, etc.). Use of humble and honorific forms is not a domain for the beginning student, but if you are familiar with the basic production of these forms you may recognize them when you hear them. See the humble and honorific inflection cases for more explanation. Note that some verbs are inherently honorific, humble, or especially polite without special conjugation, such as "irassharu", "oru" and "gozaru", respectively. These are usually marked as such in a dictionary. The Dictionary Form I will be discussing Japanese verbs in terms of their dictionary form, which, as the name implies, is what most dictionaries list as their entry for the verb. The dictionary form corresponds to the plain (i.e. not polite) form of the nonpast indicative tense. This is the tense used to make simple declarative statements such as "I eat", "you go", etc. All Japanese verbs in the dictionary form end with a syllable from the "u" row of the kana table. Even more restrictively, the last syllable of the verb must be one of the following: "su", "ku", "gu", "bu", "mu", "nu", "ru", "tsu", "u". If a word does not end in one of these syllables, it is not a verb in the dictionary form. Two Types of Regular Japanese Verbs Regular Japanese verbs, which, thankfully, are all but a relatively small handful, fall into two categories based on how they conjugate. For any given verb, you must know or identify to which group it belongs as the first step to inflecting it. One group of verbs is called "godan" ("five-step") verbs. They are also sometimes referred to as "type I" verbs, and occasionally called "yodan" ("four-step") verbs. The terminology is unimportant, as long as you can recognize what sets them apart. Any regular verbs that do not end with "-ru" are godan verbs. Furthermore, for verbs that do end with "-ru", if the preceeding syllable is not from the "i" or "e" rows of the kana table, i.e. "ki", "shi", "chi", "ni", etc., or "ke", "se", "te", "ne", etc. then the verb is godan. What you have to be careful of are a minority of "-ru" verbs whose preceeding syllables are in the "i" or "e" rows which are godan verbs anyway. There is no way to know, except simply to remember when such verbs fall in this category. The above is couched in terms of Japanese writing, but this can be a little simpler to understand at first if we use roomaji. All regular verbs whose roomaji representations end in anything other than "-iru" or "-eru" are godan verbs. Additionally there are a relatively small number of cases where verbs end in "-iru" or "-eru" that are godan verbs anyway. The following are godan verbs: 話す hanasu to speak 歩く aruku to walk 泳ぐ oyogu to swim 呼ぶ yobu to call 飲む nomu to drink 死ぬ shinu to die 作る tsukuru to make 待つ matsu to wait 洗う arau to wash The other group of verbs is called "ichidan" ("one-step") verbs. They are also sometimes refered to as "type II" verbs. Obviously, any regular verb that is not godan is ichidan. Following the converse of the above, all ichidan verbs end in "-ru", and the syllable that preceeds the "-ru" is from either the "i" or "e" row. In terms of roomaji, all ichidan verbs end in "-iru" or "-eru". The following are ichidan verbs: 飽きる akiru to grow tired of できる dekiru to be able 食べる taberu to eat 教える oshieru to teach As stated above, verbs that end in "-iru" or "-eru" may actually be godan verbs in some cases. You must simply remember which these are on a case by case basis.Here are a few godan verbs ending in "-iru" and "-eru": 入る hairu to enter 走る hashiru to run 参る mairu to come, to go (humble) しゃべる shaberu to talk, to chat Additionally there are some homophonic pairs made up of one godan verb and one ichidan verb. Such is the case with the verb "iru" ("to exist" for animate subjects) and "iru" ("to need"). The former is ichidan, the latter is godan. Obviously each verb in such a pair is written with different kanji (for verbs written in kanji), even though the readings are the same. Furthermore, homophonic verbs may take differing pitch accents. Here are a few more: Ichidan Godan 着る kiru (to put on) vs. 切る kiru (to cut) 変える kaeru (to change) vs. 帰る kaeru (to return) 寝る neru (to sleep) vs. 練る neru (to knead, to polish up) Here is a more or less complete list of godan verbs ending in "-eru" and "-iru". Once you are familiar with the inflections, one way to remember the classification of a given "-iru" or "-eru" verb is to remember two different forms, such as the dictionary form and the past tense. Because of the difference in the way ichidan and godan verbs conjugate, the two of these together will mark the verb as being unmistakably in one or the other category, whereas the dictionary form alone will not. The Mechanics of Conjugating a Japanese Verb Once you have identified the verb's type, you are ready for the process which will take it from the dictionary form to whatever end inflection you desire. Japanese verb conjugations can be thought of as being produced by the following fomula: {Prefix} + {Root} + {Base} + {Inflection ending} + {Auxiliary verb/ending} Prefix is usually a polite beginning like "o" used in very few forms. Root is the dictionary form of the verb with the last syllable removed.* Base is usually one (sometimes two) syllables that connect the root to the inflection ending. In some cases, a root and base make up an inflection without any additional ending. Bases are derived from the last syllable of the dictionary form of the verb, and also differ between ichidan and godan cases. In this method, the root with a base attached is called a stem and a stem is named similarly to its corresponding base. For any verb, there are seven different bases (and thus stems). Inflection ending is what usually gives the verb its final meaning, although sometimes an auxiliary verb or ending also contributes to the meaning. Bases and inflection endings go together, so you must learn which endings require which bases, but there are patterns that will help you remember many of them. * Note: Linguistically, part of the sound of the dropped syllable is necessary for the root to contain the meaning conveyed by a godan verb, so the "root" in this method is not, by itself, meaningful. From a mechanical and written point of view, however, this method is easier to work with. We add back the necessary component by attaching the base. Examples: asobu (to play) as a "polite nonpast indicative": Root: aso Base: bi Inflection ending: masu Result: asobimasu ("play", "plays", or "will play") matsu (to wait) as a "plain negative past presumptive"*: Root: ma Base: ta Inflection ending: nakatta Auxiliary: darou Result: matanakatta darou ("probably didn't wait") * Remember that inflection names exist just to have something distinct to call the form. Don't let terminology get in the way. The meaning is what is ultimately important. Note that there are different ways to frame the rules that allow you to construct all of the verb forms. That is, there are different divisions that could be made in considering what is a base, what is an ending, and so forth. The method I am presenting derives from two considerations: Validity in the context of Japanese writing. Some systems, for instance, will say to drop the -u from a verb like "hataraku", and add -i to form the "-masu stem". In kana, "ku" is a single unbreakable element, so the system I am presenting would phrase the rule as: drop "ku" to form the root, then add base "ki" to form the "i-stem". Rule simplicity and least number of exceptions or differences in rules between ichidan and godan variations. Bases To form a stem with a given base, simply select the base from the table below based on what kind of verb you are conjugating, and in the case of a godan verb, what its last syllable is in dictionary form. Verb Type a-base i-base u-base e-base o-base te-base ta-base Ichidan [none] [none] -る -ru -れ -re -よう -you -て -te -た -ta -su (-す) Godan -さ -sa -し -shi -す -su -せ -se -そう -sou -して -shite -した -shita -ku (-く) Godan -か -ka -き -ki -く -ku -け -ke -こう -kou -いて -ite -いた -ita -gu (-ぐ) Godan -が -ga -ぎ -gi -ぐ -gu -げ -ge -ごう -gou -いで -ide -いだ -ida -bu (-ぶ) Godan -ば -ba -び -bi -ぶ -bu -べ -be -ぼう -bou -んで -nde -んだ -nda -mu (-む) Godan -ま -ma -み -mi -む -mu -め -me -もう -mou -んで -nde -んだ -nda -nu (-ぬ) Godan -な -na -に -ni -ぬ -nu -ね -ne -のう -nou -んで -nde -んだ -nda -ru (-る) Godan -ら -ra -り -ri -る -ru -れ -re -ろう -rou -って -tte -った -tta -tsu (-つ) Godan -た -ta -ち -chi -つ -tsu -て -te -とう -tou -って -tte -った -tta -u (-う) Godan -わ -wa -い -i -う -u -え -e -おう -ou -って -tte -った -tta DON'T PANIC! This table is easier to memorize than you might think. From the a- to the o-stem, notice that almost all the changes are very regular, directly following the corresponding column of kana as you might see them in a table. There are two anomalies to look for in this part of the table. The first is that the o-bases are long vowels, extended by hiragana "u" (う). The second is that the a-base for a godan verb ending in "-u" is "-wa" and not "-a", like you might expect from the pattern. For the other two bases, the te-base and ta-base, you will have to do a little more work. It's easier, however, if you see the verbs in groups by how they behave. Ichidan is simple: just add "-te" or "-ta". For the godans, "-su" stands alone, taking "-shite" or "-shita". Verbs ending in "-ku" and "-gu" are similar, but just as "gu" is the voiced form of "ku", "de" replaces its unvoiced form "te" in the ending. The others fall neatly into two groups. Verbs ending in "-bu", "-mu", and "-nu" all have identical behavior for these two bases. Verbs ending in "-ru" (that are godan verbs), and those ending in "-tsu" and "-u" form a similar group. Use these associations to your advantage by remembering the godan ending syllables in the order presented. Then the groups will always fall into place in your mind. Also note that for any -te form, the corresponding -ta form always follows directly (and vice-versa), so memorize one and you really know them both. There is one last thing to keep in mind. Naming things can be dangerous because of exceptions. Such is the case with a number of the ichidan bases. Note, for instance, that both the a- and i-stem for "taberu" is "tabe" which ends neither in an "a" nor "i". These bases are sometimes numbered from 1 to 7, instead of the names I've given here, which avoids the pitfall of exceptions. Numbering is less descriptive, however. I find it useful to have the mnemonic name, which works most of the time. Time for some examples. Here is a table like that above, except that all the stems have been produced for example verbs by applying the root + base equation. Verb a-stem i-stem u-stem e-stem o-stem te-stem* ta-stem* 食べる taberu (to eat) 食べ tabe 食べ tabe 食べる taberu 食べれ tabere 食べよう tabeyou 食べて tabete 食べた tabeta 話す hanasu (to speak) 話さ hanasa 話し hanashi 話す hanasu 話せ hanase 話そう hanasou 話して hanashite 話した hanashita 歩く aruku (to walk) 歩か aruka 歩き aruki 歩く aruku 歩け aruke 歩こう arukou 歩いて aruite 歩いた aruita 泳ぐ oyogu (to swim) 泳が oyoga 泳ぎ oyogi 泳ぐ oyogu 泳げ oyoge 泳ごう oyogou 泳いで oyoide 泳いだ oyoida 呼ぶ yobu (to call) 呼ば yoba 呼び yobi 呼ぶ yobu 呼べ yobe 呼ぼう yobou 呼んで yonde 呼んだ yonda 飲む nomu (to drink) 飲ま noma 飲み nomi 飲む nomu 飲め nome 飲もう nomou 飲んで nonde 飲んだ nonda 死ぬ shinu (to die) 死な shina 死に shini 死ぬ shinu 死ね shine 死のう shinou 死んで shinde 死んだ shinda 作る tsukuru (to make) 作ら tsukura 作り tsukuri 作る tsukuru 作れ tsukure 作ろう tsukurou 作って tsukutte 作った tsukutta 待つ matsu (to wait) 待た mata 待ち machi 待つ matsu 待て mate 待とう matou 待って matte 待った matta 洗う arau (to wash) 洗わ arawa 洗い arai 洗う arau 洗え arae 洗おう araou 洗って aratte 洗った aratta * Note that since these stems form inflections on their own, they are often refered to as the "te-form" and "ta-form" of the verb. The te-form, as you will see below has a few different functions, and the ta-form is a past tense, in addition to being part of other inflections. You will also notice later on that the i-stem, u-stem, e-stem and o-stem all form inflections on their own, and all but the o-stem are used as the basis of still other inflections (although o-stem is used in a few verb expressions). Making Inflections With the basic ability to form stems at your disposal, you're ready to produce any Japanese verb form. Most inflections, including all of the most common everyday-use inflections, are simply made up of a stem plus an ending. This means that you have to know which stem goes with which endings. I will present these case by case, but you should notice the following patterns: Endings derived from the polite suffix "masu" universally attach to the i-stem. This stem is called the "masu stem" in many sources for this reason, but that's not the limit of its application, so we'll stay away from calling it that. Almost all plain negative verb endings attach to the a-stem. That takes care of quite a few of them, actually. Once you're on to the patterns, it just gets easier. As was previously explained, verbs do not inflect for number or person, as they do in English, so, thankfully, that's out of the picture. But we add back some complication with politeness level. Most inflection cases of Japanese verbs have both a plain and polite form, though in some cases, the polite form is not heard in normal conversation because of the mechanics of the language. Normally, only the final verb in a sentence indicates politeness, so polite cases of forms that are not typically used at the end of a sentence are rarely heard except in special circumstances or in set phrases (like "akemashite omedetou gozaimasu"). The menu bar to the left links to rules for numerous inflection cases and verbal constructions, and more will be added soon. Basic end-stage verb inflections (as opposed to inflections that give you back another verb or adjective) indicate an affirmative or negative sense ("I talk" vs. "I don't talk"). Taking these in combination with "plain" and "polite" levels of speech gives us four variants for most inflection cases. The inflection rules will be presented with a particular stem or "root" in brackets, which you will replace with that form of the verb, and then anything else that should be directly applied attached with a "+" sign. Any auxiliary will follow an ampersand ("&"). prefix + [stem] + ending & auxiliary To get a feel for how the inflection rules work, let's use the verb "matsu" ("to wait") and start with the nonpast indicative. Let's look at the combination of the plain politeness level with the affirmative sense. The rule for this variant will be presented like this: [う-stem] [u-stem] This gives "matsu" (待つ). That's not very interesting, but that's all it is. Now let's take the plain negative: [あ-stem] + ない [a-stem] + nai This gives "matanai" (待たない). Now for the case of the "plain negative past presumptive" as was presented for "matsu" earlier: [あ-stem] + なかった & だろう [a-stem] + nakatta & darou As we saw before this gives "matanakatta darou" (待たなかっただろう). The "&" indicates the begining of what I consider to be the "auxiliary" portion of the inflection. Everything after "&" in a rule will be written in roomaji as it is normally spaced. In Japanese writing there are no spaces. In the roomaji, however, the separation can be useful for understanding how the parts fit together. It is also more readable that way. The rules are grouped into inflections of similar meaning, and these inflections will be named, as they have been so far (e.g. "nonpast indicative"). When there is no fancy name for an inflection, the basic meaning (e.g. "Easy to do") is used instead. Additionally, inflection cases are presented with approximate meanings, inflection examples, usage notes, and usage examples where possible. Rules will be divided between what applies to godan verbs and what applies to ichidan verbs, but where this is not marked, the rule applies to both. Simply select the correct base for the verb type. Remember that I am a student of Japanese, and you are reading my notes. While I can furnish the mechanics of inflection production with relative certainty, I am not an expert on usage or meanings. I am sharing my present understanding picked up from reading and asking questions of more knowledgeable people. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- To the Japanese Language & Culture Page -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Collin McCulley cmmcculley AT charter DOT net Last updated December 8, 2002.